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Ruminations on Octopuses and Autism

12/21/2020

2 Comments

 
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I have been thinking a lot about autism, and what it means to be defined as “neurodivergent” in a “neurotypical” world.  Even those "politically correct" labels reflect the biases of those for whom autism is "other." Anyway, this week I was watching a video about octopuses, and it opened up a new lens on autism... and I wanted to share some of my thoughts.

First, some facts about the octopus:  It's everywhere... all over the world--in the deep sea, in the kelp forests, in the coral reefs, along the rocky shorelines. It's massive, and it's tiny. It's been around for millions of years. And it's wicked smart, especially when you consider the other members of  the mollusk family: clams, oysters and snails.
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An octopus carrying two halves of a coconut which will become a home.
The octopus can perform all kinds of learning tasks… including ones that involve object perception and short-term and long-term memory. It can make plans, which means it remembers past events, imagines future needs, and analyzes the ways that current actions can relate to both. It uses composite tools. It takes things apart. It invents games. It problem-solves. It explores the environment like a curious child.

What does this have to do with autism? Trust me, I'll get there. (I'm autistic.)

So, all the other species (dogs, cats, humans, dolphins) that are considered forms of "intelligent life" are vertebrates. In fact, most of them are mammals, and primates at that. These “intelligent life” vertebrates trace their common ancestors back 320 million years, probably to some kind of lizard. But when we go looking for the common ancestor that we share with the octopus, we have to go back more than twice as far... 600 million years, in fact. And the common ancestor was... wait for it... a flatworm.

What's my point?

My point is that, in the history of this planet, intelligent life actually evolved twice, in widely separated (vertebrate and invertebrate ) trunks of the family tree. And the point of this observation is to explain why the intelligence of the octopus is so insanely different from the intelligence of the vertebrates.
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An inaccurately titled graphic, unless humans are considered monkeys. But the point here is that only one of these is an invertebrate.
And HERE is where it relates to autism:  Our theories of intelligence have historically been derived from our studies of vertebrates, especially mammals, and especially primates. All these vertebrate forms of “intelligent life”  have been very social creatures that travel in pods, packs, herds, or tribes. Not surprisingly, our theories about intelligence have been shaped by this fact.  These theories have assumed that intelligence evolved in certain species in response to social needs for communication, for bonding, for collective action, for establishing and maintaining social hierarchies, and so on.
 
But… then there is the octopus, a form of intelligent life that is notoriously anti-social. The octopus does not bond with other octopuses, does not live or travel with them, and  does not observe any kind of social hierarchy. It is a real loner. According to our theories of intelligence, it should actually be quite stupid... dumb as a snail, in fact. But the octopus has 500,000 neurons and the snail has only 20,000.  The octopus is right up there with the pig, the dog, and the dolphin. Clearly there is a problem with our theories about the evolution of intelligence. Being social has no bearing on the development of intelligence.
 
And here we are.  Autism is "characterized by difficulty in social interaction and communication." We are wired for resistance to social pressure. We are said to lack empathy, to have difficulty reading social cues, are oblivious to social hierarchies. We don't travel in packs. Are we missing out on evolutionary forces that generate intelligence?  Or are we developing intelligence along a completely different axis, like the octopus?
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How did the octopus come to be so much smarter than the snails and clams? If it wasn't social pressure, what was it? Apparently, it's all about the shell... or lack thereof.

One hundred and forty million years ago the lineage that produced the octopus lost its shell. This shell-less proto-octopus was way more nimble, way more mobile, and way more vulnerable than the other shell-encased members of the mollusk family. With all the predators in the ocean, one might have expected this new branch of the family tree to become extinct in a generation or two. But that’s not what happened.

The octopus got very smart very fast. It became a master/mistress of disguise. It developed the ability to  change not only color, but also texture in 200 milliseconds. That’s faster than the blink of an eye. It’s way faster than a lizard that takes 20 seconds to change color. And the octopus can change camouflage up to 177 times per hour. How can it do this? Because most of its 500,000 neurons are not in its brain, but in its eight arms. The stimulus/response thing bypasses the brain completely. It takes a shortcut that enables the arm to "read" the environment and send appropriate signals directly to the special camouflage cells i the arm. These camouflage cells are incredibly complex, with highly specific functions. Some control for red, black and yellow coloration. Some reflect blue and green light, others reflect white light. Another layer of specialized cells can change the texture from smooth to rough, and back again.
 
What does this have to do with autism? Well, so… let’s go back to losing that shell, that protection.  Kind of like losing one’s armor. Yes, it makes one vulnerable, but it also drives the evolution of a different kind of intelligence, an intelligence that is rooted in highly complex and subtle interactions with one's physical environment. If the octopus lacks the social intelligence that comes from belonging to a pack, it has evolved an exquisitely fine-tuned relationship to the natural world around it.

If an autistic person is lacking in social intelligence, have we evolved compensatory sensitivity to our surroundings? Without the kind of protective armor that non-autistic people develop in their social interactions, have we developed a different form of perceptual/conceptual mobility, a nimbleness of spirit? Could it be that our "special interests" are part of this protective disguise? Without the rigid shape associated with a social role, are we not able to slip ourselves into the secret nooks and crannies of a rich inner life that appear irrelevant or inconsequential to those who have never had to develop alternative resources?
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Daryl Hannah, Darius McCollum, Dan Aykroyd, Julia (Sesame Street), Satoshi Tajiri (田尻 智), Hannah Gadsby, Susan Boyle, Sir Anthony Hopkins, Talia Grant and Greta Thunberg.
I can't claim to have anything like the brilliant adaptations of the octopus. But I do feel that centering the intelligence of the octopus calls into question many of our human assumptions and theories. I have the intelligence to know that we humans have very limited understanding of intelligence, and that we may well have reached a period in our evolution as a social species, where the concomitants of our bonding, i.e. our love of  conformity, our lack of authenticity, our prioritizing of congeniality,  our staggering disregard for our natural environment, and our ongoing massacres of our fellow creatures are going to destroy  life on the planet in less than two generations. Is it possible that autism marks an acceleration in human evolution--that our intelligence is moving in the direction of the octopus--and not a moment too soon?
2 Comments

When Cancel Culture Came to Broadway

12/11/2020

1 Comment

 
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Blacklisted Playwrights Lillian Hellman and Arthur Miller
“Cancel culture (or call-out culture) is a modern form of ostracism in which someone is thrust out of social or professional circles - either online on social media, in the real world, or both.” –Wikipedia
 
Cancel culture is nothing new. In the 1950’s, it was called blacklisting, or Communist witchhunting. It was a political tool for consolidating support and silencing dissent, and it was especially effective in stifling writers… at least until it got to Broadway. And what happened when "cancel culture" attempted to invade Broadway is an example today for a world that is rapidly becoming more and more polarized and censorious.

It was June 22, 1950.  The names of prominent Broadway playwrights Arthur Miller and Lillian Hellman had just been published in Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television. The brainchild of three FBI agents, this official blacklist named 130 organizations and 151 individuals—actors, musicians, writers, and broadcast journalists, and it was intended to flush out subversives in the media and, in contemporary parlance, to “no-platform” them. The question on everyone’s minds, “Would Miller and Hellman now face the same fate as the ‘Hollywood Ten?’ Would their careers be destroyed? Would they also go to prison?”
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Nine of the Hollywood Ten: Robert Adrian Scott, Edward Dmytryk, Samuel Ornitz, Lester Cole, Herbert Biberman, Albert Maltz, Alvah Bessie, John Howard Lawson, and Ring Lardner Jr. Dalton Trumbo is missing. [There would have been a Hollywood Eleven, except that Bertolt Brecht left the country immediately after testifying.]
Now, bear in mind that Miller had just won both a Tony and a Pulitzer Prize for Death of a Salesman, which had opened the previous year. Two years before that, he had won a Tony for All My Sons. By 1950, nine of Lillian Hellman’s plays had been produced on Broadway, and four of these would be adapted to film, including The Children’s Hour, The Little Foxes, and Watch on the Rhine.

“Canceling” these playwrights would be a significant feather in the cap for the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), which was holding the hearings to investigate the so-called infiltration by Communists. HUAC had every reason to feel confident, because just a few months earlier, eight screenwriters, one film producer and one film director (the “Hollywood Ten”) had all begun serving prison sentences up to a year for their non-cooperation with HUAC in 1947. Refusing to name names, the Ten had been cited for contempt, and after two years of exhausted appeals, they faced the inevitable. Hollywood had turned its back on them.


Things were not looking good for Miller and Hellman… but what HUAC didn't understand was that Broadway was not Hollywood.

In Hollywood, it was possible to shoot an entire film and never meet most of the cast. The actors did not engage directly with their audiences. The film would be shown long after it was wrapped and the actors had moved on to other projects. In other words, the bonds of camaraderie in Hollywood were forged in social and political activities, not in the course of producing a film.

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Dalton Trumbo in prison. After his release, Trumbo moved to Mexico, where he continued to write screenplays under a pseudonym (Roman Holiday and The Brave One-- which won an Oscar.) In 1960, when his name appeared in the screen credits for Exodus and Kirk Douglas publicly named Trumbo as the writer of Spartacus, the blacklist officially ended.
Broadway was another story.  Stage actors formed families, rehearsing with each other for weeks and then facing their audiences together night after night, and maybe even for years if the show was a hit. Holding hands at the final curtain, the actors shared an awareness of the work as a whole and an appreciation for everyone’s part in it. Sometimes these shows would be sent out on tour, but for the most part, after a show closed, the Broadway family would scatter and then regroup at the next round of auditions for plays.  There was a centuries-old history and a tradition among Broadway actors that simply did not and could not exist in Hollywood.

The prison-bound Hollywood Ten all saw their careers terminated for a decade, but the Broadway artists had an entirely different experience.  The production of Death of a Salesman continued its Broadway run into the fall of 1950, five months after the publication of Red Channels. That same year producers Kermit Bloomgarten and Walter Fried sent the play out on national tour. In spite of the fact that one of the authors of Red Channels attempted to organize local boycotts of the play at every stop, the tour was a success. One month after Salesman closed on Broadway, Miller’s adaptation of Ibsen’s Enemy of the People opened. And in 1953, one of the most enduring artifacts of the McCarthy era premiered at the Martin Beck Theatre. The Crucible, Arthur Miller’s play about the Salem witch trials, is often interpreted as a commentary on the McCarthy witchhunts. Called to testify before HUAC in 1956, Miller was asked about this, and his response was sardonic: “The comparison is inevitable, sir.” In 1955, A View from the Bridge and A Memory of Two Mondays both opened on Broadway.

And what about Hellman? In 1951, her play The Autumn Garden opened at the Coronet Theatre, and in 1956, the musical Candide, featuring Hellman’s libretto, won a Tony Award for Best Musical.

In other words, Broadway continued to support Arthur Miller and Lillian Hellman. Let's look at how and why this happened:
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The heads of the major studios who signed the infamous Waldorf Statement supporting the blacklist: Louis B. Mayer, Samuel Goldwyn, Harry Cohn, Barney Balaban and Albert Warner.
One of the most significant differences between Hollywood and Broadway had to do with the unions and the producers:

One month after the hearings of the Hollywood Ten, the heads of the major film studios met at a posh hotel to issue what would become known as “The Waldorf Statement.” In part, it read: “Members of the Association of Motion Picture Producers deplore the action of the [Hollywood Ten]… We will forthwith discharge or suspend without compensation those in our employ, and we will not re-employ any of the Ten until such time as he is acquitted or has purged himself of contempt and declares under oath that he is not a Communist.”

In 1951, the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) voiced their support of HUAC and sanctioned the blacklist with this warning to their members: “… if any actor by his own actions outside of union activities has so offended American public opinion that he has made himself unsaleable [sic] at the box-office, the Guild cannot and would not want to force any employer to hire him.” Two years later, SAG would go even further, requiring potential members to sign a loyalty oath as part of their application to the union. This mandatory signing was in effect until 1967, when the Grateful Dead refused to sign and the provision was made optional. In 1974, SAG finally removed it from their by-laws.
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Actors' Equity’s first strike as a union came in 1919 when it joined with the American Federation of Labor (now the AFL-CIO). The casts of 12 New York productions refused to go on stage. By the end of the month, nine more New York theatres went dark and Equity members in Chicago, Boston, and Washington D.C. joined the strike. Producers caved after one month, having lost over 3 million dollars.
The American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) would take a similar  position to SAG. Even as they fought on progressive fronts to become the first industry union to win employer-funded health and retirement plans, AFTRA voted to suspend any member who failed to cooperate with HUAC. The Writers Guild of America (WGA), representing the screenwriters, and the Directors Guild of America (DGA) also supported HUAC and turned against their blacklisted members.

Workers in the film and television industries were frightened into silence, or worse, frightened into naming names in order to protect themselves. But three thousand miles away, on another coast and in an alternative universe, Actors Equity Association, the actors' union,  took a very different course of action. They rejected the blacklist and supported their members who had been named.

To understand their decision, it’s important to look at how Actors Equity worked. In the 1940’s and 1950’s, it was a union centered in New York, but with branches in Chicago, Los Angeles and San Francisco… but—and this is important—regional decisions had to approved by the New York council. In other words, Broadway actors ran the show.  Actors Equity already had taken a progressive stand against segregation of audiences in 1947, effectively causing the closure of the National Theatre in Washington.
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The actor Philip Loeb was blacklisted and also named by Elia Kazan and Lee J. Cobb who cooperated with HUAC. Loeb was fired from a hit TV series because of the blacklist. The sole support of a son with psychiatric disability, Loeb became depressed over difficulty finding work in film and television. In 1955, he took his life. Actors' Equity named an award in his honor.
In September 1951, at a quarterly meeting of Equity in New York, the members passed a strongly worded resolution against the practice of blacklisting. Because it was passed by members, it had to go before the Equity Council, where it was hotly debated for two weeks before being rejected. A committee was formed to redraft the resolution. This time, the resolution passed, but with more diplomatic wording and unfortunately omitting a clause that drew attention the fact that Black actors faced a kind of double jeopardy “as they have always been discriminated against in terms of employment.”

 The final resolution was, however, unequivocal in its repudiation of the Communist witch hunts:  

“Whereas the aforementioned practice of “blacklisting” is by its very nature, based on secrecy and prejudiced judgement and results in conviction by accusation without an opportunity given to the accused person to be heard and to defend himself… now therefore be it resolved: That this Association again condemns the practice of “blacklisting” in all its forms, and that this Association will act to aid its members in their rights to obtain a fair and impartial hearing of any charges that may be brought against them.”

The union stood by the blacklisted actors and offered them support, and they were the first and the only performing arts organization to do so.  Following their lead, the Broadway producers joined with Equity in their condemnation of the practice. A paragraph regarding blacklisting became standard in Equity’s basic agreement:

“The Manager and Actor admit notice of the anti-blacklisting provision contained in the basic agreement between Equity and the League of New York Theatres…”
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Blacklisted Broadway actor Madeline Lee Gilford and husband Jack in 1950. Madeline showed up in costume to testify with flowers in her hair and a borrowed organza dress. She evoked the First, Fourth, Fifth, and Eighth Amendments. They joked that their children's first words were "Mommy," "Daddy" and "Fifth Amendment."
So what happened when HUAC brought their scurrilous hearings to Broadway in 1955? Broadway was ready for them.

Most of the 29 subpoenaed theatre artists were actors, and they had done what actors do: they had rehearsed. Some of them literally played characters at the hearings, costumes and all—"the dumb blonde,” “the Southern belle.” They deployed time-honored, scene-stealing tactics that included stalling for time to run out the clock. They held dramatically extended conversations with their attorneys, and they infuriated their interrogators by answering questions with more questions. These subpoenaed witnesses faced an unpleasant choice between naming names, going to prison for contempt, or taking the Fifth Amendment--which sounded like an admission of guilt. But, as actors, they knew how to milk a scene, and they were experts at exactly how far they could go before losing their audience. As witnesses, they would venture dangerously close to the line of contempt, and then pull back before crossing it. They would approach it again, again pull back, and then, seconds before they were cited for contempt, they would pull out the Fifth Amendment.  In other words, they put on a damn good show.  After four days, HUAC threw in the towel, cancelling the fifth day of the hearings. In the end, only one witness had named names. The 22 non-cooperative witnesses went back to work at their respective theaters without any repercussions.


As an interesting footnote to the 1955 hearings, the process servers had a heck of a time serving these theater artists with subpoenas. Denied entry into their homes, these servers often tried to track down their prey at the theaters where they worked. They were met with stage managers or  box office staff who insisted the actor had not yet arrived or had already left the building. Often the servers were sent on a wild goose chase, while the actor’s cast members helped them sneak out of the theatre using an alternative exit.

And so the blacklist that had ruined so many reputations, destroyed so many careers, broken up so many families, and shattered so many lives in Hollywood did not succeed in New York. HUAC returned in 1958 to try again, but this time eighteen of the nineteen witnesses refused to cooperate.  The record of these hearings is comparatively meager, because the Supreme Court had handed down a ruling in 1957 that severely restricted the kinds of questions HUAC could ask. These hearings were more of a denouement. Joseph Papp was let go from his television job at CBS after his 1958 hearing, but he opted for arbitration and became the first person to win reinstatement during the blacklist. Shakespeare in the Park, which Papp had founded in 1957, continued that summer and in 1962, expanded into the open-air Delacorte Theatre where it continues to flourish.
 
HUAC had been thoroughly upstaged by a community whose primary commitment was to each other and to freedom of speech, thought, and association. As radio commentator Dorothy Thompson noted, “Give the actor a stage, without which he simply does not exist. Not a stage in a court room. A stage in a theater. His judge will never be a Congressional Committee. It will always be an audience.”


Recommended reading: Broadway and the Blacklist by K. Kevyne Baar, published in 2019 by MacFarland & Company.

1 Comment
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    Carolyn Gage

    “… Carolyn Gage is one of the best lesbian playwrights in America…”--Lambda Book Report, Los Angeles.

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